Anomie Theory

Right off the bat when reading the article it states that it's the most widely read article in sociology. The author Robert K. Merton opens his paper by first challenging certain offenses that were popular in 1938. Most of the theories that Merton has analyzed mentioned â€Å"biological drives†. Some of the theorists view crime as â€Å"biological drives† in which our society comes to terms with restraining it. What I found interesting, Merton doesn't agree with other theorists, he, on the other hand, argues that a person or persons drive for crime is frequently shown to be stemmed from society itself. This is when his theory or argument splits into two parts. The article refers to his â€Å"anomie theory†. This hypothesis of his is looked to be explained why certain parts of societies have increased rates of criminal activity than let's say, the other half of the societies in which they appear to have decreased rates of criminal activity. Merton focuses on the relative emphasis placed on this set cultural goals society has placed as well as the institutionalized norms for achieving these goals of society. It is come to know some certain places in society have a high comparative prominence which is called cultural goals. Also, to have a low corresponding value of the norms or as well some gain the achievement of goals, which increases the rate of crimes. Merton characterizes these societies by using the terms anomie or normlessness, whereas it is explained from â€Å"the goal-seeking behavior†, Merton mentions. An individual is exposed to little commands or in other words law. This turns into a repercussion for persons employing the most beneficial values including that of criminal acts in order to achieve their once again prize. The â€Å"strain† theory Merton discusses in this half of the article argues that some person and persons within a society are being exposed to â€Å"special† pressures that of criminal actions. Merton mentions that while it is urged as well as expected that people strive for financial riches, people of the lower class are prevented from achieving this goal. This leads to individuals to have pressure, but even then they can adapt to the strain or so-called pressures of values. Continuing of Merton briefly discusses why some types of individuals are more likely to respond to strain with crime than others. Merton's strain theory has been the subject of extensive commentary and researches the evidence for his strain theory which is mixed. Certain recent tests of this theory seem to be at it's accurate as well as the anomie theory. The anomie theory proposes that criminal activity is most seen in those who place much emphasis on cultural goals and little on the norms for achieving the goals, meaning to be successful. Before going into the article I made a note that has caught my attention about the author itself. Albert K. Cohen was a student of Robert K. Merton. I just found this to be very intriguing because some of his points or theories have been taken into account in Cohen's articles. Cohen has a particular interest and focus of criminal societies. To narrow it down, Cohen focuses more on the lower-working-class urban gangs of 1950, during that time they were the subject of attention. Cohen in the article poses a question of: â€Å"How can we explain the origin and content of delinquent subcultures?† Since he was a student of Merton as I said before he draws some of Merton's theory to provide his own, collective answer to the question which is often outlined throughout the article. In the first part of his theory, that is being stated in the first section of the article. Cohen provides a well-explained origin of deviant social groups. The second section applies that the theory to explain the origin and contents of man it has to be specified by gender. Cohen focuses on working-class males and urban gangs. While I was reading the parts of the article, I have noted and made some comparisons and contrasts with Merton's strain theory. Similar to Merton, Cohen argues that â€Å"goal blockade† is what causes delinquency. Now Cohen, on the other hand, argues that lower and working class males don't concern themselves with the goal of cultural goals. Other than the obvious of not concerning themselves with achieving this success, they would rather concern themselves with the fulfillment of making it to the higher societal class. The achievement of broader goals referred to the respect from the higher-ups in the financial success aspect of cultural goals. This was noted by Cohen to be crucial because of the difference in goals. It is said in the article that an individual can obtain financial riches through illegal activities such as theft, this is one of Merton's adaptations of innovation. An individual can't steal the status of a higher class, which makes perfect sense since it could lead to a huge consequence, which Cohen discusses throughout the article. The consequence is that the lower and working class often have to evolve to the goal blockade by making an alternative plan. This is how someone, an individual would gain their true success. This is also noted to be very much alike to Merton's adaptations of criminal behavior, in which was explained that these new goals and methods are basically being replaced for the previous goals instead of the new. From reading onward I made the connection that both the lower and working class share hostility towards the middle-class persons. The hostility leads them to set up a status quo that values everything that the apparent middle class doesn't concern itself with. Based on these very theories it is explained that the middle class values private property and respect for an individual. Now, this caught my attention because it made me question his theory. It's suggesting that lower and working class boys don't value such things. Also, in the theory, it gives an example of what I was questioning. The example that was given was that while gangs of some sorts value the destruction and theft of any property probably more towards private property and leading more towards aggression towards others. Cohen then goes onto the explanatory origins and contents of the criminal social group. After getting towards the end of the article it states the definite features of his hypothesis. Theorists have come to the main claim that the goals of criminal persons are not disagreeable to an idea of standard goals as Cohen has explained throughout his theory. Even though there has been a criticism the data shows and tends to often prove and support this argument. All of this information that was given by this theorist Cohen brings a fundamental contribution to criminal law. Anomie Theory Anomie theory is important for explaining whether crime is a normal or abnormal (pathological) social phenomenon (Cartwright, 2011). It describes a lack of social norms, lawlessness and normlessness (Cartwright, 2013). In detail, it is a breakdown of social bonds between an individual and the community. This theory was first coined by Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist in his book Suicide published in 1897 (Cartwright, 2013). Later on, Robert Merton, the President of American Sociological Association, developed the link between anomie and social structure. Unlike Durkheim, Merton used the notion from Durkheim’s anomie theory and explains that social structure could exert pressure on an individual and directly cause deviance (Cartwright, 2011). This theory is better known as the Anomie-Strain Theory. Furthermore, in 1994, Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld, like Merton, brought more attention to social organization and social institutions instead of focusing on individuals when analysing crimes (Cartwright, 2011), so the Institutional-Anomie Theory was developed. In order to understand the anomie theory better, the developments of this theory from Emile Durkheim to Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld should all be considered. For Emile Durkheim, his main concern about anomie was social solidarity (Cartwright, 2011). Based on this concern, he divided solidarity into two categories: mechanical solidarity, which maintains low adaptation skills; and to the contrary, organic solidarity whose inertia sensitively needs changes (Cartwright, 2013). Durkheim observed that these two groups would co-exist. The reason is that anomie is impossible when solidarity is organic. Their sensitivity to change leads to evolution among this form of labour. Later in 1897, Durkheim pointed out that the suicide rates were due to the dramatic economic changes, such as economic depression and the sudden growth of the economy (Cartwright, 2011). â€Å"According to Durkheim, these periods of anomie –times of normlessness, lawlessness, and unregulated choice – made individuals more susceptible to committing suicide or engaging in deviant behaviour† (Cartwright, 2011, p. ). In this study, Durkheim associated anomie with the influence of a lack of the norms. In Durkheim’s study of anomie theory, two notions should not be neglected. Firstly, Emile Durkheim referred to society much like a functioning organism (Cartwright, 2011), evidence for the theory can be easily found in his referring to the society as â€Å"the social organism† or â€Å"the functions of the central or gan† (Cartwright, 2011, p. 6). In order to maintain the continuation of the organism, each of the integrated parts has to be working well. Secondly, Durkheim discussed crime as an â€Å"abnormal† activity, which indicates that a certain proportion of crimes are normal and happens in most societies, (Cartwright, 2011). f in the steps of Durkheim’s study, Robert Merton described more about the relationship between social structure and anomie theory, later known as the anomie-strain theory. The definition of the word â€Å"strain† in the verb form means to subject to tension or stress. This meaning is very similar to the strain theory. The theory indicates that the social structure of a society may pressure or force the citizens to commit crimes, due to the failure to provide many individuals’ with â€Å"the conventional means necessary to realize those culture goals†, which also means that the individual lacks access to cultural goals, such as money, job, or education (Merton, 1938). In Merton’s publication Social Structure and Anomie, he provides a good example that explains his theory. For example, in the USA, the society’s general goal is wealth; therefore, in order to achieve this certain goal, the institutionalized manner is to be hard-working or obtaining education (Merton, 1938). Based on this theory, Merton identifies five modes of adaptation, including conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion (as cited in Cartwright, 2011, p. 21). According to Merton, innovators are most likely to engage in criminal behaviour, since they may accept the recognition of certain cultural goals but reject achieving the goals in a legitimate way (Merton, 1938). This illegitimacy adjustment as the major concern involves two features (Merton, 1938). Firstly, such antisocial behavior â€Å"by certain conventional values of the culture and by the class structure involving differential access to the approved opportunities for legitimate, prestige-bearing pursuit of the culture goal† (Merton, 1938, p. 27). Secondly, it is the consideration of equal significance. Because of the limitation of legitimate effort, for those individuals with formal education and few economic resources, success is hard to get (Merton, 1938). In addition, Merton declared that the theory he studied was incomplete, since various structural elements were neglected; for example, â€Å"the relevance of cultural conflict for an analysis of culture-goal and institutional-means malintegration† has not yet been examined, and â€Å"the social function performed by illicit responses† has also been omitted (Merton, 1938, p. 30). As for Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld (1995), their study, known as the institutional-anomie theory, focused more on how criminal behavior is affected institutionally, such as by schools, churchs or companies. Messner and Rosenfeld declared that criminology has overly focused on analyzing the behavior of individuals, such as mental illness, but paid less attention on how social organization and institutions influence the behaviour (Rosenfeld & Messner, 1995). Based on the comparison chart that Messner and Rosenfeld established in Crime and the American Dream: an Institutional Analysis, the statistic shows that the United States of America has the highest rates of robbery or homicide among a number of countries (Messner & Rosenfeld, 1995). The reason is due to â€Å"the crime causing nature of American-style capitalism and its unique cultural goals or aspiration† (Cartwright, 2011, p. 52). Messner and Rosenfield are also concerned about the normal functions of social institutions. The definition of â€Å"institutions† means â€Å"relatively stable sets of norms and values, statuses and roles, and groups and organizations† (Messner & Rosenfeld, 1995, p, 60). At this point, Messner and Rosenfeld introduced four major social institutions: political system or polity, economy, institution of family and institution of education (Messner & Rosenfeld, 1995). Even though these four institutions may not seem directly relevant to crime; however, according to Messner and Rosenfeld, in order to analyse the crime in the United States, the interconnection between these four institutions are central (Messner & Rosenfeld, 1995). In this study, Messner and Rosenfeld (1995) also talked about the institutional balance of power. Due to the monetary need of every cooperation and institution, the economy â€Å"has come to dominate the other three institutions† (Cartwright, 2011, p52). The devaluation of the economy has overcome the other three major institutions. At last, the dominance of the economy has developed to a very extreme level, and the monetary goals bring out the term â€Å"the ends justify the means† (Cartwright, 2011, p, 52). As the development of anomie theory, from Emile Durkheim to Robert Merton to Messner and Rosenfeld, is discussed, the elements that tie these together is that they all try to figure out the reasons that cause criminal behavior and examines as to why crime happens. This also counts as a similarity between the three anomie theories. In the article â€Å"Cheap Capitalism† written by Hongming Cheng, he characterized cheap capitalism by â€Å"low prices, inferior quality and unsafe condition of goods or services to maximize profits† (Cheng, 2012, p, 254). Cheng also pointed out that the cheap capitalism is â€Å"facilitated by cheap labour and raw materials and, more importantly, associated with degraded morality in the business world† (Cheng, 2012, p, 254). In my opinion, the article provides a good example of and explanation for crime in the non-capitalist countries, such as China. Cheng gives an example about food crime, which involves rampant institutions using cheap and dangerous industrial chemicals in foods (Cheng, 2012). One explanation will be that the food industries provides low-quality food to cheap labourers, since the poor working class cannot afford buying expensive but healthy food (Cheng, 2012). The case is related to the institutional-anomie theory studied by Messner and Rosenfeld (1995). One way to cause crime could be due to the social structure and social institutions. In the article, Cheng also provides a table of scales from 1 (not very important) to 4 (very important) that describes the factors that may lead to and influence the food crime. It turns out that social culture, moral and values got rated 3. 8 out of 4, followed by â€Å"lack of adequate enforcement† that got 3. 6 (Cheng, 2012). From this table, it shows that â€Å"moral anomie is a major factor that associated with food crime† (Cheng, 2012, p, 265). From my perspective, the institutional-anomie theory is connected to this case the most. In conclusion, the development of anomie theory, from Emile Durkheim to Messner and Rosenfeld, provides brilliant ideas and thoughts that explain crime thoroughly. The evidence that supports their theory is solid and valid. Based on this, it makes the theory complete and reasonable.

Controversy on Native American Mascots Essay

Bigotry and mockery are two concepts that the United States has fought with since its creation, and it seemed that it was disappearing, but it hasn’t. Many schools, of all levels, are using a Native American mascot to represent their sporting teams and this has brought much controversy over the truth behind these mascots. This idea is the mocking a heritage for money and amusement of others. It does not, in any way, represent the truth behind Native American modern life. Lastly, if a mascot was used to represent another race, it would be deemed insulting and would immediately be removed. Using Native Americans as mascots is a cruel form of mockery and racism, and must be put to an end. A mascot is used to make money and to attract and amuse crowds. For many sports teams, mascots are animals such as bears or tigers. By using a Native American as a mascot, you are labeling them as lesser than the spectators of the sport. A Native American is a person, not an animal that one can use and sell for their own benefits. A student should not feel that their own school is mocking their family and their heritage for entertainment purposes. One student of a North Carolina high school had even said, â€Å"How long would you want to stay in a place where you’re being mocked and laughed at? † By mocking this heritage, they are not only offending people, but losing money in the process of trying to make it because many students prefer to not go to a school where they feel they are being made fun of. The use of a Native American as a mascot is offensive and must immediately be put to a stop. The idea of a Native American used to entertain people or represent sports teams is not at all what a real person of this heritage is. When the term â€Å"Indian† is used, many think of someone wearing face paint and a feathered headdress, the exact icon for the Cleveland Indians baseball team. However, the modern Native American is never dressed in anything like this. This mascot provides a false image to the rest of the world about a real culture. A representative had said that Florida State University’s mascot is â€Å"eye-catching but not historically accurate†. These images send out a negative reputation for Native Americans, and even make them seem like war-loving savages. The modern life Native Americans near the university are running a casino, not wreaking havoc on other tribes. This mascot sends a false and negative reputation about the true Indian culture that must be stopped. Racism has, over the years, become a rather sensitive topic in the United States. After years upon years of slavery, many are quick to assume that any comment towards an African American is based upon racism. However, no one jumps to conclusions when hundreds of schools using a heritage to amuse people and make money. According to N. C. A. A. resident Myles Brand, â€Å"At times, Indians are reduced to caricature. † If any school had dared to use an African American as their sports team mascot, it would bring massive controversy. To prove this, a group of students at the University of Northern Colorado nicknamed their team the â€Å"Fightin’ Whites†. This was quickly deemed extremely inappropriate, just as the use of any race in a nickname should. If one is against racism, they must be against it in all types, regardless of if it’s about African Americans or Native Americans, and the use of a mascot in this way is incredibly racist. As Brand had said, â€Å"If we don’t stick to our values, we lose our integrity. † The use of a Native American mascot is incredibly disrespectful to the true culture of these people. It does not show the real culture, it uses something sacred to make money, and it even promotes racism. By the school’s use of this mascot, we are allowing the bigotry and racism to spread throughout the world. This concept must be put to a stop immediately and must start with our region removing the high school’s mascot.

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English Essay Culture polity, traditions, language, food, costume, belief system, architecture, arts, craft, music, dance, and sports which will be discussed in this article to give you an indication of Fijis indigenous community but also the various communities which make up Fiji as a modern culture and living. The indigenous culture is an active and living part of everyday life for the majority of the population. However, it has evolved with the introduction of vibrant and old cultures including Indian, Chinese and European culture, and various cultures from the Pacific neighbors of Fiji; in particular the Tongan and Rotuman cultures. The culture of Fiji, including language, has created a unique communal and national identity. Tradition and hierarchy Fijian indigenous society is very communal, with great importance attached to the family unit, the village, and the vanua (land). [1] A hierarchy of chiefs presides over villages, clans, and tribes. Chiefly positions are hereditary; a deceased chief is invariably followed by a kinsman or kinswoman, though not necessarily his own son or daughter. This reflects Polynesian influence: in most other Melanesian societies, chiefs are appointed on merit. The largest social unit for Fijians is the Yavusa, defined by R. A. Derrick as the direct agnate descendants of a single kalou-vu (deified ancestor). Chiefly succession was from older brother/sister to younger brother/sister, after the death of their father/mother. When the youngest brother/sister died, the eldest son/daughter of the eldest brother/sister became chief. This tradition still influences Fijian society today, though less rigidly: there is more of a tendency nowadays towards primogeniture. [2][3] Each brother/sister in the family then formed his own branch of the yavusa, called the Mataqali. Each mataqali became the custodian of a specific task. A fully developed Yavusa has several mataqali: * Turaga: This mataqali descends from the original ancestor through primogeniture inheritance of the eldest son in each succeeding generation. The chief of a village is always chosen from the Turaga mataqali. [1][4] * Sauturaga: These are next in rank to the chiefs, support him, and enforce his commands and also have final say in the installation of a Chief[1] * Mata ni vanua: These form the official heralds of the village. They are also in charge of ceremonial functions. [5] * Bete: This was the traditional priestly class. The kalou-vu was believed to speak through the Bete. [1][6] * Bati: This mataqali forms the traditional warrior class. [6] * Dau (skill) and Matai: these are the crafts people and specialized skilled people of the tribe e. g. Dau ni vucu (Poet/choreographer/composer), Dau ni yau (treasurer), Mataisau (carpenter/or Canoe builder)[1] The mataqali are subdivided into Tokatoka, each comprising closely related families. Several mataqali comprise a village, several of which form a yavusa or district. The British colonial rulers amalgamated the districts into Yasana, or Provinces. The districts also form three Matanitu, or Confederacies. These are often said to be agglomerations of provinces, but as the latter were a colonial imposition, the boundaries do not coincide exactly, and the Provinces of Tailevu, Ra, Naitasiri, Lomaiviti and parts of Yasawa and Ba makes the Kubuna Confederacy. This Confederacy in modern Fiji is considered to be the most senior. The other two are Burebasaga (covering the rest of Viti Levu), and Tovata, covering Vanua Levu, Lau archipelago and Rotuma. Despite its isolation and relatively small size, Tovata has been politically dominant since Fiji gained its independence in 1970. Language The official language is English while the national indigenous language is Bauan which is only one of the many dialects that exist in the Fiji Group, each of the fourteen provinces more or less have their own dialect though there is a clear distinction between the dialects of the West, Central and Eastern parts of the country. Other languages spoken in the country are Fiji Hindi, Cantonese, Rotuman, Gilbertese (Rabi Island), and Tuvaluan (Kioa Island). The Fiji Islands are traditionally linked to their island neighbours Rotuma, Tonga and Samoa, and this is evident in the culture and dialects of the Northern and Eastern provinces being Cakaudrove, Bua, Macuata, and Lau. The many dialects spoken in these four provinces consistently use sounds that are heard in Tongan and Samoan, but not so with dialects from the Western and South Western parts of Fiji. The Fijian language uses a Latin alphabet. However, the Fijian alphabet is dissimilar from the English alphabet. Fiji English The existence of many dialects within the Fijian language as well as exposure to the other languages spoken have contributed to many Fiji Islanders being bilingual. For general communication in an informal environment, a very interesting cross use of the languages has developed, resulting in slang now commonly referred to as Fiji English. In formal settings, of course, correct usage is adhered to. Fiji English comprises aspects of Fijian, English and Hindi, which reflects the history and identity of the people of Fiji. Fiji English is non-rhotic. . Cultural arts and social polity In culture, its various crafts and music give it an identity along with it traditional etiquette and varying forms of clothing attire, its unique architecture also tells a story of a culture and its evolution, the following will discuss these aspects of culture in Fiji. Arts and crafts Fijis arts and crafts reflect local adaptations of their Polynesian and Melanesian heritage. By tradition, the mens and womens crafts are separate. Womens crafts The village of Na lotu on Kadavu Island is famous for its pottery, the making of which is still governed by strict rituals. Nadroga and Rewa also produce fine pottery. Each region has its own unique style in the making of pottery. Tapa from the Lau Islands in Fiji. The making of Tapa cloth, or (masi), is another craft associated with women. Tapa is made from the bark of the paper mulberry tree and decorated in charcoal with symbolic motifs and various patterns. In modern times, it has become fashionable for a masi to bear the name of the person who made it. Masi are often exchanged as gifts on formal occasions. The island of Vatuelele of the southern coast of Viti Levu is famous for its masi products. Most Fijian mats are made from the leaves of the pandanus tree. The long process of preparation includes scraping and boiling the leaves, and drying them in the sun. There are different mats used for different occasions, and some are made as gifts for formal occasions such as weddings. Most mats are bordered with highly decorative and brightly coloured wool. One well-known Fijian mat is the kuta, made by women in Vanua Levu, particularly Bua. Weaving using various materials was another craft generally mastered by the women but also aspects of weaving were mastered only by the men, various types of weaving practiced were and still are; basket weaving, coconut rope weaving, and coconut leaves weaving. Mens crafts Carving was practiced by the men; carving would be used for items of practical use and simple shapes and design were used. A lot of effort was put into well adorned weapons and items for the home and ceremony, today carving is practiced for its use in tourism and no longer plays a major role in Fijian society and life except in the case of the Tanoa used from drinking Kava. Drua, the most impressive Fijian canoe. Canoe Building was another art practiced only by the men, canoes were not only the major form of communication, but were important in all aspects of Fijian society, from the gathering of food and transporting of crops to use in presentation ceremonies and they were instrumental in wars and politics which were rife in Fiji. 9] The art of Canoe building was varied across the group and had several different types but of a similar design, the Camakau was a small twin hulled canoe for fishing or small transportation purposes, the most impressive of Canoes in Fiji were that of the Drua. In Fijis early history before European involvement, Control of the seaway was a major and decisive objective; disrup ting or cutting off the enemies supply and reinforcements gave great advantage in battle and would ensure victory. Sea battles involving hundreds of canoes were frequent. The canoe, which inspired fear and awe and so often held the balance was the mighty Drua. One of the most elaborate and beautiful artifacts of Oceania, the Drua was a product of considerable group efforts and human sacrifice. Double hulled and of gigantic proportions, the Drua was a masterpiece of design and craftsmanship, requiring total community involvement in its construction and human sacrifice in its launching. 10] Its speed out at sea would be in excess of twenty knots and still remained highly manoeuvrable, it was capable of carrying upward of 150 warriors and took some 6 to 7 years to build and would vary in length from 100 feet to 118 feet and have a mast height of 60 to 70 feet, in the mid-19th century the following accounts were recorded: Up went the huge sail, down went the great steering oars, splashing into the sea, and away we shot like a racehorse. Owing to the great rate at which we were going, the sea was like a hissing cauldron on either side of our course, and the vessel, instead of having time to mount over the smaller waves, cut its way through them. (West, 1869). It had a magnificent appearance with its immense sail of white mats; its velocity was almost inconceivable. (Wilkes, 1840). Ratu Seru Cakobau commanded an impressive fleet which had Several Drua with armed warriors ready for battle the led Canoe was named Rusi I Vanua or Cursed is the land. 11] Much of the art of Canoe building has been lost and only a small few still practice the art on a very small scale as its use in this modern era seems to have lost its place. The craft of Canoe building was traditionally reserved for the male. Performing arts Fijian Rugby Team Performing a Traditional War Dance before their Rugby encounter against Canada. The Meke An indigenous art form is the Meke, which may incorporate the seasea (womens fan dance) or a meke wesi (mens spear dance). It is usually a narrative of an important event such as a war, a chiefly installation, or even a scandal. Some mekes are generations old, and form an important part of Fijis oral history. In olden times, the meke was considered to be an oracle from the gods, and the Dau ni vucu, or composer, would often go into a trance before a performance. Others are modern, composed for a particular event, much as a poet laureate might write a poem to celebrate an event in a Western country. Each district of Fiji has its own form of meke, performed in the local dialect. Other forms of Polynesian and Melanesian dance art forms exist with most widely known being dances of Rotuma and Tonga. There are also various Indian dances and Chinese dances which are performed at relevant festivals marking important times for these communities which are now a part of Culture in Fiji. Music Music of Old Fiji consisted of various chants which often told a story or preserved information to be passed on from generation to generation, these songs used various traditional instruments. With the introduction of European and Asian cultures music in Fiji has evolved and songs sung in the Fijian vernacular are popular but so also are songs in Indian and English, some local artists mix all three languages and traditional instruments from each culture making for a very interesting musical experience. A distinct Indian sound has evolved in Fiji that some see as influencing modern Indian music and even jazz. Clothing and costume The traditional attire was loin cloths for men and grass skirts for women. Skirts were short for single women, and long for married women, with girls wearing virgin locks before marriage. Most ladies of rank had the lower parts of their bodies decorated with tattoos. Chiefs dressed more elaborately. Modern Fijis national dress is the sulu, which resembles a skirt. It is commonly worn by both men and women. One type worn by both men and women is the Sulu va Taga pronounced Sulu vah Tanga which is a wrap around piece of rectangular material which is elaborately decorated with patterns and designs of varying styles this is for more casual and informal occasions. Many men, especially in urban areas, also have Sulu va taga which is a tailored sulu and can be tailored as part of their suit. Many will wear a shirt with a western-style collar, tie, and jacket, with a matching Sulu va taga and sandals, this type of sulu can be worn to a semi formal or formal occasion. Even the military uniforms have incorporated the Sulu va taga as part of their ceremonial dress. Women usually wear a multi-layered Tapa cloth on formal occasions. A blouse made of cotton, silk, or satin, of often worn on top. On special occasions, women often wear a tapa sheath across the chest, rather than a blouse. On other occasions, women may be dressed in a chamba, also known as a sulu I ra, a sulu with a specially crafted top. There are many regional variations throughout Fiji. Residents of the village of Dama, in Bua Province and Cakaudrove i Vanua (Province), Fiji wear finely woven mats called kuta, made from a reed. While traditional and semi-traditional forms of dress are still very much in use amongst indigenous Fijian culture, there is a greater influence for Western and Indian Fashion in urban areas as in neighboring developed nations. Traditions and ceremonies Etiquette in indigenous Fijian ceremony is rather intricate depending on the function as various formalities and presentations which do several things; firstly it shows respect between two communal groups, strengthen tribal and family ties and reinforce social, tribal and family ties. Various items are used in ceremony and surrounded by ceremony, Kava, known in Fiji as yaqona, is Fijis national drink. Traditionally, it was used only in important ceremonies. Nowadays, it is a social beverage. There is a strict protocol associated with yaqona drinking. One should clap once, clasping the hands, take the cup, and drink the yaqona in a single draft before returning the cup to the bearer. Another highly prized item in ceremony is the tabua or Whales tooth, other items also the use of mats (masi) are also used traditionally in ceremony also various regions have tradition that has been passed down generation to generation for centuries one example are the firewalkers of beqa. The Sawau tribe of Beqa are noted for their ability to walk on white hot stones without being burned. 12] Strict rituals have to be observed before the firewalking ceremony. There is an ancient myth about how an ancestor of the Sawau tribe was given this power by a spirit god in exchange for his life, after the god was captured by the man who was fishing for eels. Cuisine The cuisine of Fiji in pre-colonial times consisted of root crops, vegetables, and fruits, as well as various land animals such as wild pig, human, and various birds. The coastal tribes would have had the same, but also had a large amount of local seafood. These would have been prepared with local herbs and spices on wood fire rock ovens. Most cooking areas were located in the center of house so the smoke would repel insects and strengthen the roof thatching. Another popular method of cooking, which is still used today, is the lovo which is an earth oven[13] — a fire made on in a pit in the ground lined with heat-resistant stones. It closely resembles the hangi of the New Zealand Maori. When the stones are hot, food wrapped in (banana) leaves, is placed in the pit, covered with soil and left to cook before being exhumed and eaten. Dishes cooked this way include palusami, parcels of taro leaves saturated with coconut milk, onions, and sometimes tinned meat. Modern Fijian Cuisine is rather diverse with great influence from Indian cuisine and spices. When these are applied to local traditional dishes, it makes for interesting eating. European, Indian, and Chinese variants of cuisine, along with traditional foods, are common place in most, if not all households in Fiji. Architecture A bure kalou, a sketch done in the early 1800s. In Old Fiji, the architecture of villages was simple and practical to meet the physical and social need and to provide communal safety the houses were square in shape and with pyramid like shaped roofs,[14] and the walls and roof were thatched and various plants of practical use were planted nearby, each village having a meeting house and a Spirit house. The spirit house was elevated on a pyramid like base built with large stones and earth, again a square building with an elongated pyramid like [14] roof with various scented flora planted nearby. The houses of Chiefs were of similar design and would be set higher than his subjects houses but instead of an elongated roof would have similar roof to those of his subjects homes but of course on a larger scale. With the introduction of communities from Asia aspects of their cultural architecture are now evident in urban and rural areas of Fijis two main Islands Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. A village structure shares similarities today but built with modern materials and spirit houses (Bure Kalou) have been replaced by churches of varying design. The urban landscape of early Colonial Fiji was reminiscent of most British colonies of the 19th and 20th century in tropical regions of the world, while some of this architecture remains, the urban landscape is evolving in leaps and bounds with various modern aspects of architecture and design becoming more and more evident in the business, industrial and domestic sector, the rural areas are evolving at a much slower rate. Literature The emergence of Fijis literature (as distinct from oral literature) coincides with the countrys transition to independence in 1970. Among the first published works of Fijian literature, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, were Raymond Pillais short stories (in English) and Pio Manoas poetry (in English and in Fijian). More recent notable Fiji writers include Satendra Nandan (poet and novelist), Sudesh Mishra (poet), Larry Thomas (playwright), and Joseph Veramo (novelist). Religion Religion is quite diverse with Christianity being the dominant faith in Fiji. Many Christian denominations are present in Fiji, the most prevalent of which is Methodist. Of the other Asian religions the Hindu faith is dominant, followed by Islam. There are other belief systems observed by Fijians as well. The impact of Christianity The impact of Christianity in the 19th century resulted in certain traditions being proscribed. In the pre-Christian era, human sacrifice was practiced. Men were buried alive to hold the pillars to the house of a chief. Cannibalism was practiced, too:[16] the bodies of enemies slain in battle, or in sacrifice, were piled up and cooked for festivals, such as the installation of chiefs or the launching of a great canoe. 16] Seru Epenisa Cakobau. The Bauan warlord who united the disparate tribes of Fiji and proclaimed himself King in 1871, renounced cannibalism on his conversion to Christianity in 1854. A bure kalou, a pre-Christian Fijian religious Building. Old religion Fijis old religion is no longer practiced by the majority in the indigenous community who have adopted Christianity. Old deities are still acknowledged and respected, but not worshipped. Fijian rituals still exists in private. Demographics Of the various faiths, Christianity is the dominant belief system and ncluding all the various denominations of the Christian faith they number in total 449,482. Hindus, with their various denominations, number in total 261,097. Muslims make up 54,324 of Fijis population. Followers of other belief systems make up 10,166 of Fijis population. Sports Sports culture is unique as different racial mixes and cultures come together in a common interest. Fiji is fanatical about sports and the two most dominant being rugby and soccer. Traditional sports Sports in older times had a practical place, apart from recreation, helping to train young warriors. One such practice would have the older men bring the male children a severely injured captive of war, allowing the boys to practice their archery skills against this living target. There were other sports that were practiced in older times which are not practiced now. Notable traditional sports used to be played were tiqa, ulutoa, veisaga, and veisolo. Modern sports The Fiji sevens team at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. Sports have developed greatly over the past two decades in Fiji with a wide variety of sports undertaken. Fiji is most well known for its prowess in the game of rugby union and in particular rugby sevens. Rugby union Rugby union is the most popular sport in Fiji. The highest level of competition is the Colonial Cup. The Fiji national rugby union team has competed in five Rugby World Cup competitions. The Fijian Rugby Sevens team is constantly one of the top two or three teams in the world, often the premier team. Rugby league Rugby league is a popular team sport played in Fiji. The Fiji national rugby league team is known as Fiji Bati, with the team competing in three Rugby League World Cup competitions. They made it to the semi-finals of the 2008 Rugby League World Cup. Football Football was a minor sport, but over the last decade with further international funding from FIFA and sound local management of the sport has grown in popularity amongst the Indian community initially but now also the Fijian community. Other sports Many sports exist in Fiji and in many ways has its own cultural following, sports such as golf which has been made famous by Fiji athlete Vijay Singh. Sports such as cricket and surfing which was brought to prominence by former world champion and Fiji athlete Tony Philips. Sailing in varying forms, various adventure sports, athletics, various Asian martial arts, boxing, and the list goes on.

Lufthansa Marketing Analysis: SWOT and PESTEL

Lufthansa Marketing Analysis: SWOT and PESTEL This report will take a closer look at the turnaround of Lufthansa airlines which went from near bankruptcy in 1991 to a now profitable airline. The evolutionary patterns of strategy and structure are identified in this report as well as how strategic leadership and German culture contributed to the turnaround. Furthermore, this paper will analyse the airline industry in terms of Porters five forces and will also take an extensive look at Lufthansas current situation by means of a SWOT and TOWS analysis. Additionally, Lufthansas business-level and corporate-level strategy will be identified and the Star Alliance, the worlds most important airline alliance, will be discussed in detail. 2.0 Company Background The Lufthansa Aviation Group is considered to be one of the worlds leading air transport corporations. It includes a number of independent group and affiliated companies with business segments in passenger airlines, logistics, aircraft maintenance, catering, tourism and IT services. Lufthansas headquarter is located in Cologne, Germany and its operational centre for passenger and cargo services is situated in Frankfurt (Key data on environmental care and sustainability at Lufthansa 2002/2003). Lufthansa is 78 years old and has currently about 93,000 employees worldwide and in 2003-reported revenue of about 16 billion Euros (Lufthansa Key Figures 2003- see also Appendix I). In terms of traffic performance, Lufthansa is in third position in worldwide passenger transport. For many years the company has also been the market leader in international cargo traffic. In 2002, Lufthansas 368 aircrafts operated on routes to 327 destinations, carrying 50.9 million passengers and 1.63 million tons of airfreight. Lufthansa was also one of the founding members of the Star Alliance in 1997, when 16 partners joined into the worlds largest airline alliance (Key data on environmental care and sustainability at Lufthansa 2002/2003). 3.0 The Industry Background The organization also has to deal with cyclical risks. General economic fluctuations as well as geopolitical developments can have a large impact on the performance of the Lufthansa Group. As good examples serve the events of September 11, the Iraq conflict and the outbreak of SARS in Asia along with a stagnating global economy which seriously influenced the business activity of the entire airline industry in a negative way (Heerkens 2003). Lufthansa is also confronted with some capital market risks as its international business activities expose it to exchange rate and interest rate fluctuations in the international money, capital and also the foreign exchange markets (Zea 2003). A substantial threat is the price of fuel since fuel consumption remains one of the main cost items for the whole airline industry. In 2003, it contributed 7.6% to Lufthansas total operating expenses. Fluctuations in fuel prices can have a significant affect on the organizations operating result (Lufthansa Annual Report 2003). Furthermore there is the threat of higher costs of insuring Lufthansas fleet. Insurance costs increased dramatically after the events of September 11 and since then stayed at a very high level. The reason for that are the massive additional premiums that are being charged for insuring against war and similar events. In case of more wars and terrorist attacks the premiums are likely to increase even further (Zea 2003). There are also a number of infrastructure risks that Lufthansa will have to deal with. There are plans for an extension of the runway system at Frankfurt Airport, which is a major hub for Lufthansas operations, and is extremely important for the long-term competitiveness of the German airline. The extension project is also crucial for securing Frankfurt Airports future as an international air traffic hub, which also applies to the building of the maintenance hangar for the new Airbus A380 super jumbo that will be used from 2007 onwards. Nonetheless, a range of operational restrictions on extending the airport has recently been debated which would hinder its efficient use. In case a solution cant be found, Lufthansa would have relocate part of their business to alternative hubs. Additionally, bottlenecks in many European air traffic control systems cause many flight delays. The infrastructural limitations are a huge burden on the profitability of all European air carriers. On top of t hat, they are inhibiting the industry to keep up with the growing demand for air transport services (Lufthansa Annual Report 2003). There are also a few risks relating to the development of alliances. One of the foundations for Lufthansas commercial success was its integration into the Star Alliance, the worlds leading airline partnership system. Currently, many of the airlines worldwide are in a loss-making situation which, in the case of a few of Lufthansas partners like United Airlines and Air Canada, reached proportions that threatened their existence and also affects Lufthansa negatively. In regards to the Star Alliance, there are also challenges of coordinating and incorporating strategic activities like the establishment of a common global brand, a shared technology platform as well as joint training and personnel development (Lufthansa Annual Report 2003). Being part of the Star Alliance also poses the threat that Lufthansa might lose its identity. It is vital for them to preserve the Lufthansa brand (Bruch Ghoshal 2002). Labour unions are an additional threat; especially in Germany they have a lot of power. Labour unions can initiate strikes, which in the past have already led to delays of departures and substantial costs to Lufthansa (Steinborn 2003). 4.0 The Company Objectives Structural analysis of an industry is a useful way of determining a companys long-term profitability. Comprehending the dynamics of the competitive forces in an industry can give an insight whether an industry is attractive and whether there are any chances for returns on capital. Michael Porter, a professor at Harvard Business School, created a framework for understanding the structure of an industry. According to Porter, the five competitive forces that can have an impact on an industry are threat of new entrants, bargaining power of suppliers, bargaining powers of buyers, competitive rivalry, as well as the threat of substitutes (Analysis of industries 2003). 4.1 Threat of new entrants The threat of new entrants offers the possibility that new firms are going to enter the industry, which will consequently lead to a reduction of industry returns by generally passing more value to consumers in terms of lower prices and also increasing the cost of competition. Factors like economies of scale, capital requirements, product differentiation, access to distribution channels, switching costs as well as brand value determine the threat of entry (Analysis of industries 2003). From my point of view it currently seems very difficult to enter the airline industry as this area of business as well as the world economy is facing a period of recession. Due to large product differentiation the entry barriers are fairly high. There is a range of flag carriers, charter airlines as well as a number of low-fare airlines in the industry. All these different types of airlines offer an extensive range of products that seem to satisfy most customers needs. Additionally, entering the aviation industry requires very high capital investments because aircrafts, technical support and IT services need to be purchased or leased. This industry is also very labour and fuel intensive which requires a lot of funds. Companies with an interest in entering the market also require access to distribution channels. This means that it is necessary to gain trust within the industry so as to get access to take-off and landing spots. This can be quite challenging as national policies still p lay a major role in the aviation industry. Furthermore it is a requirement to obtain permission from governments to enter airspace. Moreover once the market is entered, it is very difficult to exit which raises switching costs to a high level. Throughout the last decade the market opened due to the deregulation policy, which provided low budget airlines with an opportunity to enter the industry. The first entrants like Ryanair and Easyjet utilized this opportunity and developed strong brand names due to their first-mover advantage. Airlines that recently entered the market that have a similar price and cost structure generally find it more difficult to generate the traffic that is required to fill the seats in their aircrafts (Jacob Jakesova 2003). All in all it can be said that the threat of new entrants is not that high in the airline industry in the current business environment. 4.2 Bargaining power of suppliers Factors that are connected with the bargaining power of suppliers include the threat of forward integration as well as the concentration of suppliers in the industry. Supplier power decreases the ability for competitors in the industry to earn higher profits (Wheelen Hunger 2000, p. 64). The main suppliers within the airline industry are the manufacturers of aircrafts like Airbus and Boeing, fuel suppliers such as Shell, British Petroleum and Chevron Texaco. Furthermore there are technical support and IT services as well as the catering services. Suppliers are very concentrated in the airline industry as Boeing and Airbus supply most commercial fixed-wing aircrafts. The concentration of suppliers makes it difficult for the airlines to exercise leverage over the two manufacturers and negotiate lower prices or play one supplier against the other. Moreover, at the current stage, aircrafts for long distance travel cannot be substituted by any other product, which strengthens the bargaining power of the suppliers even more. Fuel providers have an excellent bargaining position as they can increase fuel prices without regarding the airlines as an important customer group. Forward integration, which is the expansion of a business products or services to related areas in orde r to directly satisfy the customer needs, is fairly low. The reason for this is that it can be assumed that neither aircraft manufactures, fuel providers nor technical support companies will purchase an airline and staff it with flight attendants, commercial pilots, a maintenance crew and operate flights across the world (Jacob Jaksova 2003). Nevertheless, the strong position fuel suppliers as well as the relatively strong position of manufacturers of aircrafts need to be taken into account when operating an airline. 4.3 Bargaining power of buyers Buyers can have significant power, as they are able to push down prices, and negotiate for better quality and service. Buyer power is determined by relative volume of purchase, switching cost, standardization of the product, brand identity, elasticity of demand as well as quality of service (Del Vecchio 2000). Since customers are not very concentrated and generally dont purchase plane tickets in large volumes they do not have a strong bargaining position. A single purchase of an airline ticket does not represent a significant fraction of the amount offered. Switching costs are quite low as consumers have a range of choices when selecting an airline. Due to the Internet, information about prices is also less fragmented and much easier to compare. Quite frequently, a customer can find price differences for the same flight and one seat is generally not any better, since everyone arrives at the destination at the same time. Considering the worldwide recession as well as the psychological effects of September 11, airline companies are under substantial pressure as customers switch to alternative transportation like trains. Vacation travelers also tend to shop around for the best price. Traveling by plane is quite expensive and can make up the largest part of the expense of a family vacation. For that reason, demand is quite elastic for some buyers. As soon as the price drops, the demand increases. However, airlines can move their prices in tandem with other airlines, which forces customers to purchase tickets for the market price until a price war starts (Analysis of Industries 2003). Nevertheless, all in all it can be said that the bargaining power of buyers is relatively low. 4.4 Threat of substitute products The airline industry is threatened by a number of substitutes. This threat is quite substantial within Europe, where Lufthansas main customer base is located. Many European countries have an excellent railway system with high-speed trains like the ICE in Germany and the TGV in France. These trains can travel up to 300km/h fast and can cover large distances within the countries in just a few hours. Trains can be considered the largest threat as they offer a variety of advantages over flying. From my point of view it seems that flying is much faster, but on a domestic flight in a European country there is not much of a difference in comparison to trains. The reason for that is that it always takes a while to get to the airport, as they are mostly located further away from cities; check-in and security checks usually require being there at least an hour before take-off. After the plane has landed, it usually takes at least another 30 minutes to get out of the plane, claim the baggage an d organise transportation to leave the airport. Railway stations on the other hand can be much more easily accessed than airports, there is no check-in and security check required and the destination railway station is generally in a very central location close to hotels or offices that need to be visited on a business trip. Furthermore, trains offer generally great scenery while travelling and also offer more legroom. Most importantly the prices are generally lower than those of prestigious airlines like Lufthansa. Alternatively, travellers could use their own car, which would be more time consuming, but would have the advantage of increased flexibility and having transportation at the destination location and not having to use public transportation or taxis. Depending on the distance, this substitute can be either more costly or less expensive (Jacob Jaksova 2003). Moreover, short international trips to major European capitals are often done by bus and also by ferry if it is a tr ip to the United Kingdom. From my experience this is the most inexpensive way of travelling throughout Europe. However, there is no real substitute to flying if the desired destination is overseas. The only alternative to planes would be ships and unless the customer is looking for a relaxing trip on the oceans, it will just take too long to reach the destination. Recently there is also a tendency of larger companies towards purchasing corporate jets rather than flying first class. According to Costa et al. (2002) corporate jets might reduce first class traveller by 10% by 2005. 4.5 Competitive rivalry Highly competitive industries are generally less profitable as the cost of competition is high or customers are receiving the benefits of lower prices. Competitive rivalry is affected by industry growth, brand identity, fixed costs, as well as barriers to exit (Wheelen Hunger 2000, p. 63). It can be said that the airline industry is highly competitive and that industry growth is fairly moderate with airlines struggling in taking away market share from each other. The barriers to exit are considered to be very high. Planes that are grounded dont earn any returns and it is quite complicated to dispose of these assets. Due to bankruptcy laws, airlines that are in financial stress can often remain competitors for a long time (Del Vecchio 2000). In Lufthansas home market, the European airline industry has seen some recent changes with the development of low budget airlines that compete with the more mature airlines. Additionally, recent airline crises like September 11 put even more pressure on all competing airlines. This leads to a process of consolidation and the creation of strategic alliances. Airlines within one alliance dont tend to compete directly with each other anymore, which lead to a slight decrease of the pressure (Jacob Jakesova 2003). By utilizing a range of strategies a company can have an effect on the five forces of competition and thus reform the attractiveness of an industry. Historically, various strategies shifted the principles of competition and future events like war or new inventions are likely to reshape the airline industry again. Lufthansas ability to be very cost effective is also of advantage. As part of its strategic change, Lufthansa implemented Program 15, a strategic cost management program. The goals of this program included an improvement of the competitive position through a reduction in cost, internationalisation of cost-structure and making staff conscious of reducing costs in their daily work. This cost management contributed substantially to Lufthansa making profits again in 1999 (Bruch Goshal 2000). Generally it can be said that Lufthansas change management during its crisis was outstanding. Its management was able to identify the signals for the potential problems, showed great strategic leadership through CEO JÃ ¼rgen Weber and transformed the organization into a profitable company. This experience in strategic change management is very valuable and will surely help the organization with any challenges in the future (Bruch Sattelberger 2001b). Furthermore, Lufthansas management is very conscious of the need for innovation and customer service. They developed the brand ambassador concept where employees with use of personality and dedication create brand loyalty through day-to-day interactions with the customer (Rubens 2004). They recently also introduced a range of innovations and quality improvements at their passenger airlines and some innovations will be implemented in the near future. A special focus is on the business class on long-haul routes as this segment is the most profitable one. The key feature of Lufthansas new business class is a technically sophisticated seat that converts into a flat bed, which is 2 meters long, the longest bed in this class (Manuelli 2003). Lufthansa is also the first airline in the world that offers broadband Internet access on board its planes (Anonymous 2003). On the ground, they are also improving procedures for their status customers with Lufthansas Priority Service by relying on the Internet, mobile phones and check-in terminals simplify reservations and ticket sales as well as to reduce check-in times. A good example of Lufthansas innovative strength is their new terminal at Munich Airport, which was build to optimise operational procedures. In accordance with the best international standards they reduced the minimum connecting time to 30 minutes (Lufthansa Annual Report 2003). An additional strength of Lufthansa is that it has a policy of operating a young and modern fleet. They recently started a fleet renewal program in 2003 and by 2005 they will replace older aircrafts with ten new Airbus A340-600 jets, as well as ten new Airbus A330-300s. By 2007 the new Airbus A380 super jumbo will go into service that can carry 40% more passengers than the currently largest aircraft. The average age of Lufthansas fleet is just under 9 years, which puts them into a good position in comparison to airline world average of almost 15 years (Lufthansa Annual Report 2003). Another strength, which gives Lufthansa a comparative advantage, is the use of a premium executive jet service on North Atlantic routes like DÃ ¼sseldorf-Newark and Munich-Newark. This involves flights in Boeing and Airbus aircrafts that were remodelled so they fit 48 business class seats only and no economy class. Lufthansa introduced this service, because they identified that these routes were in high demand for business class travellers (Ghazvinian Fragala 2002). Lufthansa also offers a very good website that has a lot of features the customers can utilize. Online bookings have more than doubled in 2003. Lufthansa are also constantly expanding their destinations, which can be reached with etix, the companys electronic tickets that offer convenient paperless travel. The number of passengers that use etix is gradually increasing as it can be used to fly to 70 per cent of Lufthansa destinations (Lufthansa Annual Report 2003). Lufthansas Miles More customer loyalty program is also a great tool to encourage customers to fly Lufthansa again. The program has grown in popularity since it was introduced ten years ago and developed into the leading frequent flyer program in Europe (Miles More). Furthermore, Lufthansa is one of the founding members of the Star Alliance, the worlds leading airline alliance. The alliance was voted Alliance of the Year in 2003 on three different occasions (Lufthansa Annual Report 2003). The Lufthansa group consists of seven independent subsidiaries. Lufthansa centrally coordinates their strategy development process. A principal element of the Lufthansa group is clear customer-supplier-relationships between the seven companies. However, the relationships between the individual companies are a weakness, as they dont function as planned. Lufthansa has not reached the required relationships for a market-based internal coordination. So far, the internal customers dont act as normal customers yet since the demand conditions, which they would never demand with other external business partners (Bruch Ghoshal 2000). Another weakness is that the openness for change has almost vanished since Lufthansas amazing turnaround was achieved. During the turnaround, changes were implemented very quickly, but today it takes a very long time for small innovations to take place. Lufthansa also admits not to be perfect in the areas of punctuality, luggage safety, waiting periods, technical reliability and telephone availability, but is in the process of improving this situation (Bruch Ghoshal 2000). Another weakness could be that Lufthansa does not do anything about their low-budget competitors in the European market. Lufthansas management claims that they would not start a low-fare airline under its name, as it would cannibalize its own traffic and damage its brands (Anonymous 2002). 5.0 Economic strategy of Lufthansa According to Hitt (2003, p. 122), a Economic strategy is an integrated and coordinated set of commitments and actions the firm uses to gain a competitive advantage by exploiting core competencies in specific product markets. The literature suggests that there are a number of different business-level strategies. However, I believe that in the case of Lufthansa an integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy is used. The reason for this is that Lufthansa operates globally and therefore it is vital for them to implement cost leadership strategies as well as differentiation strategies in order to develop competitive advantages. Lufthansas Program 15 serves as a good example of a cost leadership strategy. After Lufthansa had undergone privatization they implemented this extensive strategic costs management program with the goal of reducing overall unit cost by 20% within five years (Bruch Sattelberger 2001a). In terms of a differentiation strategy, Lufthansa constantly tries to come up with a range of innovative ideas to stay ahead of the competition. A list of these ideas could be seen in the strengths section of my SWOT analysis of Lufthansa. It can be concluded that Lufthansa has made the right decision to implement an integrated cost leadership/differentiation strategy, since the literature also suggests that there is a relationship between the successful use of this strategy and above-average returns (Hitt 2003, p. 135). 5.1 Corporate-level strategy of Lufthansa According to Hitt, a corporate level strategy involves specific actions by a company to gain a competitive advantage by having a group of different businesses competing in several industries (2003, p. 183). In the case of Lufthansa, the organisation consists of seven economically independent subsidiaries that include LH Passenger Service, LH Cargo AG, LH Skychef, LH Ground Services, LH Technical Services, Thomas Cook Travel Agency and LH IT services. The individual Lufthansa companies are quite successful. LH Technical services, LH Skychef and LH Ground Services are number one in their market (Bruch Ghoshal 2000). Product diversification, a primary corporate-level strategy deals with the scope of the industries and markets in which the company competes in addition to how managers buy, establish and sell different businesses to equal skills and strengths. In regards to Lufthansa, the organisation uses a related diversification corporate-level strategy which means that Lufthansa generates more than 30% of its sales revenue outside a dominated business and its businesses are related to each other since Lufthansa centrally coordinates their strategy development process. Lufthansas motives for such a corporate level strategy are likely to be issues such as taking advantage of economies of scope, sharing activities, transfer of core competencies, and an increase in market power as well as blocking competitors through multipoint competition (Hitt 2003, p. 187). 5.2 Strategic Alliances While concentrating on internal costs and structural redevelopment, Lufthansa also worked on its external relationships by implementing the strategy: growth through partnerships (Bruch Sattelberger 2001b). While in other industries globalization triggered a wave of mergers of companies that operate internationally; airlines had to look for alternatives because national ownership regulations do not allow cross-border mergers. No airline worldwide has the capacity infrastructure to offer a suitable network by itself. Only through cooperating and alliances can the industry cater for the mobility requirements of the world economy. Therefore, founding the Star Alliance was a logical consequence and Lufthansa was one of the key-founding members of the first airline network in the world (Global Network Five years of Star Alliance). The purpose of the Star Alliance is to realize higher revenues and decrease costs by exploiting synergy effects. The synergies range from shared use of ground facilities like check-in-counters, a city office in Paris and also airport terminals. At the airports in Frankfurt, Copenhagen, Shanghai and Beijing the Star Alliance has its own check-in area with staff member of partner airlines. In addition the first Star Alliance Lounge went into service 2001 at ZÃ ¼rich airport. Other advantages include common frequent flyer programs, joint travel agency contracts collective market research and joint purchasing of materials and equipment (Economic effects for the airlines). Alliance members can also use code sharing a system by which two or more airlines agree to use the same flight number for a flight in order to attract more business by means of extending their networks through partner airlines (Collis 1998). Besides cost-saving synergies, the combined networks of Star Alliance members also offer many customer benefits. In comparison with other industry alliances, the Star Alliance is the recognized market leader (see Appendix 2). For 82 % of all offered flight connections, the Star Alliance is the fastest network. Every four seconds an aircraft of the Star Alliance starts or lands somewhere in the world and it possible to fly once round the world in 36 hours with Star Alliance airlines. Other fundamentals of its brand value include the presence of its members in important home markets and large international hubs, a high degree of customer recognition, excellent service and good cooperation between the frequent-flyer programs of the individual airlines. Furthermore each airline has its individual strengths with a strong market position in its home bases and regional hubs like Lufthansa in Germany. Due to the good cooperation, a whole network of these hubs was established and regional str engths complement each other (see Appendix 3). Additionally, most members also have regional alliances with smaller airlines, which improve the Star Alliance network even further (Global Network Five years of Star Alliance). Research has also shown that alliances result in lower ticket prices and more flight connections. It is suggested that there is a price advantage of an average 6% in comparison with conventional tariffs. In terms of the Star Alliance this leads to estimated passenger savings of between 50 and 82 million dollars per year. Additionally due to the sharing of terminals service counters of the airlines are more easily seen and found and walking distances are decreased. Having counters in the same area at airports also creates a single contact point and improves changes and baggage loading. Staff members of partner airlines can also help and advise customers with enquiries on behalf of the entire alliance. For the alliance to work properly certain level of quality needs to be ensured. This is achieved through frequent mutual quality checks. Jointly agreed quality standards in the areas of security, services and environmental protection are checked on a regular basis (Global Network Five years of Star Alliance). 5.3 Strategic Leadership and German Culture Strategic leadership, which is the ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility and empower others to create strategic change as necessary (Hitt 2003, p. 386) was extremely important in Lufthansas turnaround. The main responsibility for effective strategic leadership generally rests at the top, especially with the CEO, but also with other recognized strategic leaders like members of the board of directors and the top management team. In the case of Lufthansa, the formulation and implementation of strategies was also in the hands of the top-level management, in particular Dr. JÃ ¼rgen Weber, who was Lufthansas CEO at the time. In 1992 JÃ ¼rgen Weber realized the full extent of Lufthansas problems and called for a crisis management meeting with 20 carefully selected senior managers. The outcome of this meeting was Program 93, 131 key actions aimed at drastically cutting about 8,000 jobs, lowering non-personnel costs, reducing the aircraft fleet as well as increasing revenues by DM 700 million to reduce the losses of DM 1.3 billion. The Executive Board then appointed a number of different teams that had the task to achieve the implementation of these 131 projects. Line management was responsible for the implementation of the staff cuts. It was seen as important for the success of Program 93 that line managers took that responsibility to realize the unavoidable cuts, on the one hand, but also to motivate the remaining employees, on the other hand. JÃ ¼rgen Weber also created the OPS team (Operations Team) as a forceful engine in the process of implementing the 131 actions. They constantly monitored, created activities, advised and supported the line managers who were ultimately responsible for the implementation process. Weber showed his total support for the OPS team and personally supported them in many ways. He also implemented visible actions like a 10% reduction of the salaries of all Executive board members (Bruch Ghoshal 2000). Furthermore, to convey and spread these actions, Lufthansa implemented Town Meetings, which were initially an idea by General Electric. A typical agenda of a Town Meeting would mainly involve a talk with the particular Lufthansa units management about problems and plans. An extensive dialogue then follows with the employees where the top-management explains latest plans and also listens to the concerns and suggestions of staff members. JÃ ¼rgen Weber decided to hold as many

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee :: Free Essay Writer

To Kill a Mockingbird The theme of these two chapters is that Dill, and Jem wanted to go to the Radely house to get a peep at Boo Radely through the blinds. Scout feels uneasy about it but despite Jem’s wishes refuses to go home. He gets shot at with a gun while trying to escape. He lost his pants while escaping and when he went back to get them they where laid out on the fence like they where expecting Jem to come back. The next day every body was talking about it, they all thought Mr. Radely shot at a black man but missed. It seemed like Mr. Radely knew it was Jem though. Jem and Nathan Radley each said hi and Mr. Radely was talking about filling his tree with cement even though it was perfectly healthy. Jem found this strange. The protagonist in these chapters would be scout. She tries to convince Dill and Jem not to do it. Jem does not listen and tells her to go home, but she stays. Jem and Dill would be neither protagonist or antagonist of these chapters is Boo Radely because he is the main reason why Jem decides to go there in the first place. Scout is a tomboy who has a soft side. Even though she is rough and Strong, she is also a coward, like the time she wouldn’t go to the Radely house. She beats up the kids at school for example she beat up the kids for picking on her for liking black people. Scout is smart and trustworthy. Although most of the town is racist she thinks every body is equal. Jem is very brave, for example the time he went to see Boo Radely, and then when he lost his pants trying to escape, he went back for them even after the fact that he was shot at. He is smart but very stubborn, he wont listen to anybody because he always got to have things his way. Jem is strong, and persistent. He can sometimes be mean to Scout, epically after he met Dill. He isn’t racist and is kind and trustworthy. Dill is smart because he knows who to read even thought he is young. He is kind and open minded, he is not afraid to speak his mind. Dill is an open person, but he can be persistent. He is a smart boy but he can be very stubborn.

Frank O’Hara as Modernist for the People Essay -- Frank

  Ã‚  Ã‚   The poetry of Frank O'Hara is intimately connected to New York City.   He explores the role of the individual subject in the city and the mechanics of the city itself; yet because he engages the urban landscape in an urbane manner many readers of Frank O'Hara view him as the prankish patron of the New York art scene who occasionally took pen to paper.   Take this review by Herbert Leibowitz as an example:    A fascinating amalgam of fan, connoisseur, and propagandist, he was considered by his friends, in an excess of enthusiasm, as the Apollinaire of his generation, an aesthetic courtier who had taste and impudence and prodigious energy . . . From the start O'Hara exhibits a precocious air of command and a throwaway charm, as if to the verbal manner born . . . and indeed his world is full of events - parties, thoughtful acts, homosexual encounters, a painting or film to be commented on - that he supports with a sophisticated naà ¯ve wonder and generous emotion. [1]    Leibowitz's remarks occasion the publication of The Collected Poems of Frank O'Hara and decorate the back cover of the paperback version.   I find it a little strange that a publisher reprinted a portion of this particular review of O'Hara's poetry.   Leibowitz basically pans the book and dismisses O'Hara as a poet of minor importance.   He views Frank O'Hara as "a Pan piping on city streets".   This is a backhanded compliment at best but it does solder a connection between lyric poetry and the cityscape.   Consider that O'Hara is following in the footsteps of another lyric poet of the urban landscape, Charles Baudelaire.   Baudelaire attempts to embrace modernity, as he sees it, and to write the poetry of the city and the crowd.   Although his intentions... ...r. [7] Neal Bowers.   "The City Limits: Frank O'Hara's Poetry".   Frank O'Hara: To Be True to a City, ed. Jim Elledge, University of Michigan Press, 1990 (321). [8] This section is very problematic.   I don't want to make reductive generalizations and assertions about Modernism.   At the same time, I do not want to explore the work of any one writer in too much detail.   I'm going to allude mainly to Eliot and Pound, for simplicity's sake. [9] Frank O'Hara.   "The Day Lady Died".   The Collected Poems of Frank O'Hara, ed. Donald Allen.   University of California Press, 1995 (325).   Hereafter cited parenthetically by title of poem and line number. [10] Kevin Stein.   "Everything the Opposite: A Literary Basis for the Anti-Literary in Frank O'Hara's Lunch Poems"   Frank O'Hara: To Be True to a City, ed. Jim Elledge.   University of Michigan Press, 1990 (358).    Frank O’Hara as Modernist for the People Essay -- Frank   Ã‚  Ã‚   The poetry of Frank O'Hara is intimately connected to New York City.   He explores the role of the individual subject in the city and the mechanics of the city itself; yet because he engages the urban landscape in an urbane manner many readers of Frank O'Hara view him as the prankish patron of the New York art scene who occasionally took pen to paper.   Take this review by Herbert Leibowitz as an example:    A fascinating amalgam of fan, connoisseur, and propagandist, he was considered by his friends, in an excess of enthusiasm, as the Apollinaire of his generation, an aesthetic courtier who had taste and impudence and prodigious energy . . . From the start O'Hara exhibits a precocious air of command and a throwaway charm, as if to the verbal manner born . . . and indeed his world is full of events - parties, thoughtful acts, homosexual encounters, a painting or film to be commented on - that he supports with a sophisticated naà ¯ve wonder and generous emotion. [1]    Leibowitz's remarks occasion the publication of The Collected Poems of Frank O'Hara and decorate the back cover of the paperback version.   I find it a little strange that a publisher reprinted a portion of this particular review of O'Hara's poetry.   Leibowitz basically pans the book and dismisses O'Hara as a poet of minor importance.   He views Frank O'Hara as "a Pan piping on city streets".   This is a backhanded compliment at best but it does solder a connection between lyric poetry and the cityscape.   Consider that O'Hara is following in the footsteps of another lyric poet of the urban landscape, Charles Baudelaire.   Baudelaire attempts to embrace modernity, as he sees it, and to write the poetry of the city and the crowd.   Although his intentions... ...r. [7] Neal Bowers.   "The City Limits: Frank O'Hara's Poetry".   Frank O'Hara: To Be True to a City, ed. Jim Elledge, University of Michigan Press, 1990 (321). [8] This section is very problematic.   I don't want to make reductive generalizations and assertions about Modernism.   At the same time, I do not want to explore the work of any one writer in too much detail.   I'm going to allude mainly to Eliot and Pound, for simplicity's sake. [9] Frank O'Hara.   "The Day Lady Died".   The Collected Poems of Frank O'Hara, ed. Donald Allen.   University of California Press, 1995 (325).   Hereafter cited parenthetically by title of poem and line number. [10] Kevin Stein.   "Everything the Opposite: A Literary Basis for the Anti-Literary in Frank O'Hara's Lunch Poems"   Frank O'Hara: To Be True to a City, ed. Jim Elledge.   University of Michigan Press, 1990 (358).   

Micheal Dransfield :: essays research papers

Michael Dransfield: A poet you can feel, but never truly understand.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During a time of great change, both ideally and physically, in Australian history, a young man by the name of Michael Dransfield made his presence known in the highly evolving scene of poetry. Dransfield was an eccentric character, to say the least, and was recognized for his masterful ability of truly capturing the essence of many of life’s situations. Regardless of the â€Å"heaviness† or the difficulties of the subject matter being portrayed throughout his poetry, Dransfield was mentally equipped to fully encompass any life experience and dawn light on some of its â€Å"eternal truths† in the world. Although he tragically died of a heroin overdose in 1973 (he was 24 years old), Dransfield made a lasting impression on Australian poetry; never to be forgotten and to be forever considered â€Å"one of the foremost poets of the ’68 generation of counter-cultural dreamers† (Chan, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout his brief existence on this earth, Dransfield was able to produce an extensive body of work that ranged from the human act of â€Å"loving† to the dreadful experience of having a drug overdose. His work is â€Å"framed within the literary construct of the ‘Generation of ’68’† because it undeniably challenged the â€Å"literary status quo† during that period of time, and he â€Å"overwhelmed it with sheer talent† (Kinsella, 2002). Dransfield was innovative, unique, and was seen as somewhat a â€Å"global poet, and something of a prophet† (Kinsella, 2002). He existed during a time where poets were more inclined to avoid any mention of what they really did ( in the drug using sense), taking refuge in the socially accepted subject of football, rather than confronting the challenges associated with drug use. Dransfield had no such inhibitions, he was the â€Å"quintessential drug poet† in Australi an literary history, and it was through his drug usage—both the beauty and the destruction of it—that Dransfield was able to fully let his talent and generosity shine for all to see. He blazed the new trails for all those that were to follow him, and successfully created a place for the â€Å"authentic experience† in the realm of poetry.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is a shame that it took such a personal tragedy â€Å"for [Dransfield] to engage so definitively with the experience of addiction†¦in such an astonishingly short time† (Armand, 1997). His work can only be marveled at and admired for its â€Å"richly cosmopolitan tone, its urgent sense of possibility, its sheer ‘cannibal energy’, and its persistent attempt to resolve difficult emotional problems† (Armand, 1997).